Muska Mosston introduced the The Spectrum of Teaching Styles to the field of education in the 1960’s, and it has been influencing educators and impacting classrooms around the world for half a century (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). Mosston states that teaching is a chain of decisions that are made by the teacher, coach or educator in the pre-impact, impact and post impact stages of the educational process. Mosston’s spectrum brings together the principles that unite pedagogical knowledge, and organizes them in a framework of eleven varying teaching styles. Without such framework to unite this knowledge, ideas and information surrounding education and teaching would be scattered and unfocused (Spectrum of Teaching Styles, 2019). Each of the eleven teaching styles are determined and differentiated from the others, by the decision making responsibility of the teacher and the learner, during the educational process (Zeng, Leung, Liu, & Bian, 2009).
At one end of the spectrum there are teaching styles A-E, which focus predominantly on the reproduction of knowledge by the learner. At the other end of the spectrum are styles F-K, with their focus being on the production of new knowledge. It is the configuration of the decision making responsibility between teacher and learner that take you from the command style (A), where all decisions in the pre-impact, impact and post-impact stages are made by the teacher, to the self learning style (K), where all decisions across the same stages are this time made by the learner. The question is not which teaching style is better or worse, after all the spectrum does not designate one style as superior to the others, nor do they require linear implementation (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). The spectrum offers a consistency in terminology and a universal model for teachers to utilize as a resource.
The reproduction cluster styles (A-E) include the command, practice, reciprocal, self check and inclusion styles of teaching. In command style (A) the emphasis is on the precise replication of a specific task, and the teacher or coach makes the majority of the decisions. In practice style (B), a number of decisions in the impact stage are shifted from the teacher to the student thus creating an entirely new environment and allowing for new objectives to be met. There are benefits and challenges to all styles, what is important to understand is that each teaching style will suit certain students or will help ascertain certain outcomes. It is understanding that a teacher can, and should, vary their teaching styles to ensure all learners are being consistently engaged from a motor, emotional, social and cognitive perspective. The style that is being reviewed in this paper is the reciprocal style (C).
The reciprocal style is a commonly employed peer-tutoring style of teaching (Brya, 2013). It offers classroom management and student control in many of the same ways as the command style, but in addition also creates extra cognitive, social and emotional learning opportunities for the students (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). In the reciprocal style of teaching, the teacher retains all the pre-impact class decisions like location, start time, order of task. and attire, however decisions are shifted in the impact and post-impact stages of the process, to the learners (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). The role of the learners is to work in partnerships, with one learner being the doer and the other being the observer. The observer is acting in the role of teacher and gives immediate feedback to the doer. The role of the teacher is to make all subject matter, criteria and logical decisions but to provide feedback only to the observer (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002).
Teaching using the reciprocal style takes more planning, as the teacher would need to produce not only the details of the task, but would also need to create a matrix or task sheet that the observer can follow. Teachers can use the reciprocal style in full by 4th or 5th grade, as by this age the observers have demonstrated the ability to analyze the doers performance and give productive feedback (Ernst and Byra, 1998) Observers need to be able to understand the task cards and give feedback that is both supportive and accurate. Observers and doers need to have the maturity to discuss this feedback without being insulting or offensive. There can be significant value in the immediate evaluation that is given the doer during activity execution, as, in the reciprocal style of teaching there is technically a one-to-one teacher to student ratio. The role of the teacher is to circulate around the observers, embracing conversation and communication, whilst demonstrating patience, tolerance and acceptance of the teaching styles process and purpose. This style is about giving immediate feedback on the outcome and sometimes also the process that helps arrive at the outcome.
As outlined by NASPE (2006) in standard 18 it is the coaches responsibility to design practices that allow for athlete input and self-evaluation, and also encourage athletes to practice leadership and problem solving skills. These are both present in the reciprocal style of teaching. Simply having students work together however is not necessarily reciprocal, as this could be defined as command style (A), if one student is just telling the other student to complete a task. The reciprocal style is about one learner giving and receiving feedback from the other learner. Social interaction and development takes places while learning to give and receive feedback from your partner, there is development of social bonds that go beyond the task that is being completed. Affective development, or the development of the emotional capacity to deal with a range of emotions, occurs when students work together cooperatively like in the reciprocal style (Kelly & Melograno, 2004, p.197). To maintain the integrity of the task the teacher must observe both the actions of the doer and feedback of the observer whilst ensuring only to interact with the observer regarding the performance (Byra, 2013).
Utilization in Physical Education Programs
There is no single perfect style of teaching, within the framework of teaching physical education, for teachers to follow, and there are certainly advantages and challenges to using the reciprocal style of teaching (Zeng, Leung, Liu & Bian, 2009). One of the main advantages of the reciprocal style is that in addition to the motor task or skill being taught, there are secondary social, emotional and cognitive outcomes that can be associated with the learning experience. In addition to task completion there are social challenges in giving and being given feedback by peers. The teacher is still responsible for the pre-impact decisions relating to what is being taught, the important cues or coaching points that need to be addressed, and the timeframe the learners have to complete the tasks. But delegation to the learners to evaluate each other offers the extra development opportunities that meet the requirements of standards five and six in NASPE, personal and social responsibility and respecting differences amongst people (Byra 2004).
An additional reason that the reciprocal style is used is the increased attention that is required during the learning experience by the learners. There has been a shift in recent years away from dictating to, or talking at students without interaction, as often the information is not being absorbed and memorized by the learners (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). It is not a matter of what the teacher knows, but what the students learn, and more interaction leads to a greater chance of information retention and a more productive learning environment. The reciprocal style engages thinking and cognitive development in the learners as the observer is forced to think of the task or skill from the teachers perspective and give feedback to their peer based on their performance. In the book The Talent Code, Coyle (2009) refers to this cognitive stimulation as deep learning, as the extra attention needed will assist in the information being absorbed.
A reason some teachers will not implement this style is the amount of work that is added at the front end in creating the task cards required for each of the learning experiences. The success of a reciprocal style teaching experience is based on the information given, and the quality of the task cards, or criteria sheets that are provided to the learners at the beginning of each learning experience or class. Task cards are vital for the successful execution of the role of observer, and a quality task card should combine a picture of a skill with written instructions about how the skills should be performed (Iserbyt & Byra, 2013). A quality task card has many benefits, but also takes planning and time to create.
A second reason why the reciprocal style is under utilized is that educators are not familiar, or are less comfortable with the social element of the lesson structure. In traditional styles of teaching the teacher maintains total control over the group, with little to any talking allowed by the students. The social element can be considered less productive use of class time. Although control is still held in the reciprocal style, it is a different form of control and there may be an unease at allowing the students to have this degree of freedom. The teacher has to learn that they are no longer the only source of feedback and have to trust and empower their learners in this role. Teachers have to accept there is a social element to this teaching style, and the social element should not only be accepted but should be encouraged.
Even when the teacher is accepting and excited about this teaching style there are restrictions based on age and the nature of the task being taught. Byra (2004) says that only by fourth or fifth grade can you expect students to fully understand the instructions of a task card and also the responsibilities of executing the role of observer. Emotionally and socially it can also be a challenge before this age to engage in the communicative requirements of the style, like giving and receiving constructive and supportive feedback. Another challenge can be the nature of the selecting the skill or action that is being taught. It can not be too easy or too difficult. When it is too easy there is nothing to give feedback on, and the learning experience becomes simply social. When the activity it is too complex or difficult, the observer will have challenges in finding the appropriate teachable moments and giving the correct feedback.
Personal Reflection
The reciprocal teaching style is a very effective instructional method for the junior college environment. I am a college level physical education teacher, and I primarily teach beginner and intermediate soccer, and sports conditioning classes. I could incorporate this style of teaching in all of my classes. The age of my students means they will have the maturity and comprehension to understand and carry out the instructions of the task card I create. The actions or tasks I ask them to carry out are deliberate, discrete and in the majority of cases need to be directly replicated. I am often requiring students to carry out basic tasks well, and at the age of a junior college student this can lead to complacency. This is the perfect learning style for my environment where the physical skill level of the students is slightly lower than their understanding or perceived ability. The reciprocal style of teaching is very effective as it allows me to turn each student into a teacher, empowering them, and emphasizing the education of others. I would be manipulating the learners into thinking they were educating others, whilst knowing myself that subconsciously both the observer and learner are engaged in the learning process.
Like usual I would begin each class with a demonstration of what I am expecting from my students. When replication of a task is expected from students, an example or demonstration is an efficient form of instruction. In the demonstration I would select a student to perform the role of the doer, and using task cards, I would perform the role of observer. I would give the students examples of appropriate feedback on the task being performed in relation to instructions on the task card. I would use constructive and supportive feedback to encourage the doer in completing their task, making reference to some of the main cues, or coaching points that were highlighted for that lesson on the task card. This would serve as an effective demonstration to the students, giving them a visual reference of what is expected of the observer during the process.
I would introduce this style very early in the semester as it would be a great way to encourage social interaction within the class setting. I could learn much about my students early, and in turn they could learn much about each other. Who are the accommodators in the class and who are the assimilators? At the junior college level students often come to, and leave class immediately, spending little or no time interacting with their classmates around campus. The value of this interaction could go beyond the setting of my class, and create friendships that could help in others classes, or even outside of school.
There are many pairing techniques that I could utilize for this teaching style. At first I would allow students to find their own partner, as this would offer familiarity to them and comfort in what is already an unordinary environment. During a subsequent class I would then pair a male and female student together to create a different type of social challenge whilst utilizing the female students who are typically more deliberate in adhering to instructions (Ernst and Byra, 1998). I would also have classes where I partner a stronger student with a weaker student (relative to the skill being taught), and even a quieter, shy student with a louder more confident one. In each of these strategies for partnerships I would be creating differing social and emotional settings, experiences and challenges for my students. The reciprocal style of teaching is about embracing the social element to the lesson structure.
In my soccer classes, which has mainly beginner and intermediate level players I would start the semester using task cards as observational tools, where the observer is watching for key behaviors in the skill being practiced and offering feedback to the doer based on performance. In week three or four I would progress to using task cards as instructional tools, where students, working with their partner have to execute skills purely from the instructions on the task card. I would select skills that had not been worked on, and have the students navigate the task card to execute the skill correctly. Towards the end of the semester I would then use task cards as an assessment tool, where student observe their partner completing a task and give a score based on a predetermined and supplied scoring system. This score would contribute to the students overall grade for the class. Assessing your peer with a grade is a significantly more challenging responsibility to execute from a cognitive and social perspective, (Iserbyt & Byra, 2013).
I am thoroughly looking forward to implementing the reciprocal style of teaching in my classes, allowing the class to experiment and creating a social setting that encourages cognitive stimulation, emotional development and social interaction.
References
Byra, M. (2004). Applying a task progression to the reciprocal style of teaching. Journal of Physical Education, Research and Dance, 75(2), 42-46.
Coyle, D. (2009). The talent code: Greatness isn’t born its grown. Here’s how. New York, NY: Bantam Books.
Ernst, M. P., & Byra, M. (1998). Pairing learners in the reciprocal style of teaching: Influence on student skill, knowledge and socialization. Physical Educator, 55, 24-37.
Mosston, M., & Ashworth, S. (2002) Teaching Physical Education (5thEd.). San Francisco, CA: Benjamin Cummings
Iserbyt, P., & Byra, M. (2013). Design and use of task cards in the reciprocal style of teaching. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 84(2), 20-26.
Kelley, L. E., & Melograno, V. J. (2004). Developing the physical education curriculum: An achievement-based approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (2006). Quality coaches, quality sports: National standards for sports coaches(2nded.). Reston, VA: NASPE.
Spectrum of Teaching Styles. (2019). The Theory. Retrieved online: www.spectrumofteachingstyles.org
Zeng, H. Z., Leung, R. W., Liu. W., & Bian, W. (2009). Learning outcomes taught by three teaching styles in college fundamental volleyball classes. Clinic Kinesiology 63(1).
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