Introduction
Can you really blame a young athlete for having the desire and commitment to strive for excellence in their sport? Can you really criticize parents for supporting them, and for wanting what’s best for their children? Surely its natural. With all the glories that are afforded to modern day sports superstars is it any surprise that the next generation of youngsters are growing up with dreams of being the next Tiger Woods, LeBron James, Serena Williams or Michael Phelps. What if a young athlete has shown a degree of natural talent in a sport and could be the next Coco Gauff or Kylian Mbappe. Whilst it is clear that most aspiring young athletes want to compete at the highest level, and most parents either for financial, academic or social reasons want this for their children also, what is less clear is the path they should take to get there. Some will say you have to start early and specialize in a specific sport to have any chance of getting the best coaching and achieving the levels of success you desire. Others will say sports specialization has more challenges than benefits, and that there is no need to select one sport until after physical maturity. This paper will outline what sports specialization is, it will discuss factors surrounding sports specialization, and highlight the reasons for and against it from the research that is available. It will conclude with implications that should be addressed by all advanced level coaches and educators when working with young athletes. This is a controversial topic and one that will divide opinions accordingly.
Summary
Before we can address the advantages and disadvantages of sports specialization it is important to first define what is being addressed. Sports specialization is defined as intense, year-round training in a single sport, with the exclusion of all other sports (Hill & Simmons, 1989). Another more recent and slightly modified definition is given by Brenner, LaBotz, Sugimoto, and Stracciolini (2019) who added high intensity training to the pursuit of a single sport year round.Sports specialization has become a more relevant topic of debate since professional sports players have become idols, playing collegiate sport is more coveted, and the best way to get there is potentially through sport specialization (Donnelly, 2018). Moseid, Myklebust, Fagerland, and Bahr held a similar position when they stated a “growing number of coaches and parents believe the best way to produce superior young athletes is to have them play only one sport from a young age” (2019, p. 461). Dahab, Potter, Provance, Albright and Howell (2019) also supported this position when they found a growing number of adolescents have elected to focus on an individual sport to increase their chances of competing at high levels of competition.
The demand for sports specialization is evident. It is hard to ignore the values of sports specialization either. The reality is that at some point an athlete has to specialize in a particular sport or event. There are very few athletes, if any that are good enough to become elite level competitors in a variety of sports or disciplines, that are not in some way related. Whilst swimmers, runners or cyclists can participate in multiple events, or a rugby league player could potentially transition to American football this is because these sports are quite closely linked. Rarely have you seen an athlete who can compete at completely contrasting sports like tennis and soccer, or golf and cycling at the absolute highest level. The question therefore should not be, is sports specialization appropriate in an athlete’s quest for elite level performance, but instead, when does sports specialization become acceptable? When does an athlete have to choose a specific sport to focus on if they want any chance of reaching a high level of competition?
Those who argue for earlier specialization will point to the ten-year or ten thousand hour rule that is now commonly associated with sport, in relationship to the duration of time it takes to become a master or an expert in a skill or subject (Coyle, 2009). By association it is presumed that the earlier you start your journey the better your chances of arriving at your destination of being an expert performer or athlete. Those who argue for later specialization, and early diversification, will point to clear flaws in the belief that after 10 years of training you are guaranteed to be an expert. Instead they will encourage sport sampling, and the development of transferable sports skills in addition to emotional, social and mental skills that will offer a better platform for athletic and academic success in the future (Balyi, Way, & Higgs, 2013).
Relevance to Coaches and Educators
So why is this sports specialization debate relevant to coaches and educators? It is the coach’s responsibility to create environments for athletes to be successful. Athletes and their families trust coaches to guide them through the developmental process and provide them with the best training and guidance available. It is not only the coach’s responsibility to train the athlete, but also to educate them on the most effective or productive path to get to their desired destination. The coach’s professional integrity is to provide the best experience for the athlete, not for a team, a club, a coach’s reputation, or financial gain.
Caruso (2013) identified that as the competitive nature of youth sports has risen, so has the number of competitive events available at younger ages, and with this, so has the demand for intense training and sport specialization. In youth soccer there are now State Championships at eight years of age, and players are being asked to, or are asking to, commit to soccer before they graduate second grade. If there is no evidence for significant challenges with sports specialization, then it supports the coaches and athletes’ interest to start their pursuit as early as possible. If it is suggested that sports specialization can be detrimental to long term athlete development than the coaches are responsible for helping navigate parents and athletes through a more effective development process or program. It can be an opportunity for coaches to demonstrate a better understanding and education in relationship to the holistic approach to athlete development. Whilst athletes and parents will always have an emotional bias towards their athletic objectives and dreams, it is the coach’s responsibility to offer education, knowledge and experience to the situation.
Ambiguity Around Sport Specialization
The challenge is that there are varying opinions and stances, on many factors, associated with sports specialization. This makes it hard to truly understand if it’s a productive endeavor that coaches should be promoting. On the topic of injury, Dehab et al. (2019) states that although evidence surrounding sports injuries amongst adolescents indicates they are growing, the factors responsible for these injuries remain unclear, and should not be attributed necessarily to sports specialization. Moseid et al. however disputes this, and claims there was substantial impact on injuries and illness when athletes enrolled in academy style high school programs that focus on sports specialization and intense training (2019). Another example of varying perspectives on sports specialization can be seen in the opinions on the emotional effects on the athlete. Whilst Brenner et al. (2019) claims that early sports specialization can be detrimental to athletes emotional well-being, due to the extra pressure that increased expectations can bring, Cogan, (2019) explains that actually associating oneself with a single sport and exceling at it can offer a sense of purpose, identity, and can help with self-confidence. Potentially the challenge of varying stances and opinions can be due to the varying nature of sports. Is it possible that the acceptable age for sports specialization is determined by each specific sport? Should cycling, soccer, tennis, basketball and gymnastics all be treated the same way and be expected to follow the same guidelines? Jayanthi, Post, Laury and Fabricant (2019) supported the need to analyze early specialization across different sports individually, when they said that every sport has a different risk profile, and should not be looked at in the same way. Balyi, Cardinal, Higgs, Norris, and Way (2005) introduced the notion of early specialization sports versus late specialization sports, and highlighted that certain sports actually require early specialization, motor skill development and peak performance prior to puberty. Whereas the majority of other sports, do not require early specialization as they do not demand this level of development by such a young age.
Contrasting Early Specialization with Early Diversification
Those who support early sports specialization will tell you, that without early specialization you will never play sport at an elite or professional level. If you are not in the right club program at an early age you will miss out on the coaching when you need it the most. You will not make the representative teams for your sport, and will unlikely get the college exposure as you won’t be showcased at the right events at the right time. The longer it takes you to choose your sport of choice the further behind you will be. If you have dreams of being a professional athlete, start early and train as hard and as often as you can until you reach your goal. They will give you all the examples of the absolute minority, who started early and excelled, and make it sound like that is a realistic possibility for everyone.
The opposite side will be that if you specialize too early you will quite possibly get burned out and could be more likely to quit than succeed. If you train every day from a young age in the same sport you are almost certain to get injured from over usage injuries. If you try different sports when you’re younger you can use the mental and physical skills from varying sports in your ultimate sport of choice. You will meet new friends and be more well-rounded to make a decision as to which sport you wish to pursue to a higher level. Most importantly you will enjoy sports participation more, without the burden and stresses of high intensity sport too soon. It is not that sports specialization isn’t important, but about specializing at the right time for the correct reasons when you are physiologically and psychologically ready for the challenge.
Importance of Delaying Sports Specialization
Whilst Kylian Mbappe lifting the World Cup at 18 years of age grabs headlines around the world. Whilst Coco Gauff has the entire Nation behind her, when she competes at the US open next year these are the absolute extremes, and do not make up for the thousands of young athletes that stop playing sport every year due to mental or physical burn out. The carrot of the very few athletes overshadow the millions who do not have success stories. Whilst there are going to be success stories, of the athlete that started early and continued to stay at the top, there many more stories of trajectories that are not the same. Malina (2010) states that whilst some who specialize early do indeed make it to the top and receive appropriate financial and emotional rewards, “the overwhelming majority drop out along the way” (p. 369). There is much ambiguity around sports specialization due to the lack of a consensus as to the definition of what intensive training is, and what a highly specialist athlete looks like (Mosied et al., 2019). For the most part it is a subjective matter based on the sport, athlete and coach. There is however an overwhelming amount of research that suggests early diversification and a later introduction to sports specialization has many more benefits for athletes as a whole.
No Need to Rush
Research conducted by Hensch (2006) examined early sports specialization participation trends in elite athletes, and found that early specialization was not essential for elite athletic development. Balyi et al. (2005) also disputed the need for early specialization before puberty, by adding that very few sports required peak performance before physical maturity. Jayathi et al. (2019) added that only dancing, diving, figure skating and gymnastics required peak performance prior to puberty, and in these cases early specialization could not be avoided. In these sports, early specialization sports, coaches need to be extremely conscious of the emotional and psychological stability of the athlete during early age development. The American Academy for Pediatrics (AAP), American Medical Society for Sports Medicine (AMSSM), and the American Orthopedic Society for Sports Medicine (AOSSM), state that an appropriate age for sports specialization is late adolescence at around 16 years of age (Jayathi et al., 2019). Brenner et al. outlined extensive research of world class athletes in Germany and found that 14 years of age was their time for single sport specialization, and in fact early age athletic success was not a good indicator of future performance levels (2019). It is therefore possible to conclude, from the perspective of assisting athletes reach an elite level performance, only a small number of sports need to be encouraging athletes to specialize in their sport before the ages of 14 to 16.
Development of Motor Skills
Children have a different type of childhood now than they did a generation ago. They do not play outside after school or on the weekends, and parents are significantly more cautious than ever before. There is a lack of free play time that helps develop fundamental motor skills such as running, jumping, turning and hopping. These skills that a generation ago came from hopping fences, climbing trees, playing on rope swings, or endless hours of playing in the street or back garden that is now nonexistent. Children are being signed up for organized activities and sports most nights of the week. Even going out to play with friends is now formally organized and called a play date. Coaches and youth sports directors are fighting for their slice of the youth sports industry that has risen from 18 million in the late 1980’s to what has reached 60 million youth participants more recently (Caruso, 2013).
This quest for market share is financially driven, not athlete oriented, and is limiting early diversification and sport sampling by athletes. The trying of different sports which can bring both emotional and motor skill development value later down the line. Gone are the days where children were encouraged to try multiple sports. Now players are being categorized not by a sport but a position or role within a sport at a very young age. Early diversification does not reduce athletic success when peak performance is achieved after maturity (Bayli et al., 2013). Early diversification can help develop a range of motor skills and cognitive experiences from multiple different sports that can be beneficial to the ultimate choice of specialization (Bayli et al., 2013) This is why the AAP, AMSSM, AOSSM and four other national organizations are big advocates for sport sampling and early diversification. Early specialization without a solid and diverse physiological foundation is problematic as sports specialization does not always develop the broad skills base that is required for future elite performance (Caruso, 2013).
Mental, Emotional and Physical Challenges
There is also the threat of mental burnout in athletes that specialize in a single sport too early. Introduced to the sport at six, at twelve intensely training most days of the week and competing all over the State or Nation each weekend. By 16 when this athlete is supposed to be accelerating into their primary sport of interest, they are instead mentally tired of training and competition. Burnout and fatigue can be compounded by a lack of sleep, as early specialization and goal oriented young athletes often lack the required amounts of sleep that is recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) for cognitive development (Brenner et al., 2019). Early specialization can withdraw the fun from participation. Sport participation can become a chore and a responsibility, the expectation of being a strong performer can become baggage that must be carried by the athlete. Those who were once young enthusiastic athletes become exhausted from the demands of what was once their passion. Workload and expectation can become too much and intrinsic motivation can disappear at exactly the time it should be at its peak. Burnout can become so severe that it can cause dropout from a sport that was once enjoyable (Caruso, 2013). Ironically the coaches who think they are helping develop elite performers are actually often hindering their chance of future success.
The emotional burden that specialization can bring is arguably the most important challenge associated with sports specialization. Whilst optimal levels of physical activity are good for mental health, sport specialization typically introduces stressors that can adversely affect mental health (Brenner et al. 2019). Through early specialization sport can become stressful. An extension of school, where there is a need for excellence at an early age. Young athletes are often not mature enough to handle the pressures from themselves, their parents, their coaches and society. At best it becomes too much and they stop playing. At worse they experience mental depression and struggle with ways to express their feelings to those closest to them. Coaches need to recognize that sport should be an outlet for young athletes up to the age of 18, a stress free place away from the pressures that being an adolescent can bring. It should not add to the pressures of AP classes, college applications, SAT scores, and every other expectation that is depriving our youth of being children. Jayathi et al. “intense training can lead to social isolation, which can impede the normal formation of an athlete’s identity, it can result in excessive psychological stress” (2019, p.1046).
Risk of Injury is also greater when adolescents participate in just one sport year round. The primary challenge is that it can be presumed they are focusing on a more concentrated body part. Whether it be legs for running or arms in tennis, this endless repetition of an action or movement has been proven to increase the chances of developing over usage injuries such as Osgood-Schlatter disease or lateral epicondylitis, which is otherwise referred to as tennis elbow. Throughout adolescence the body is growing and changing, and the stress that playing a single sport year round can place on the body is a concern. Identified by Hill and Simmons (1989) a further challenge is faced when students get to high school age and they are participating in club and school sport simultaneously. This can be extremely problematic if both are utilizing the same body part. Sports diversification can allow for the focus of strain on the body to alternate. Although not rest, it is the next best thing that ensure that an underdeveloped body is not being beaten up multiple times a day, year round.
Implications on Coaches
It is not a suggestion of sports specialization being un-important. It is a matter of when and how do athletes choose to specialize in a single sport with intense year round training. The answer can vary based on the sport. It can also vary based on the maturity and talent level of the athlete. Not just physical talent but also emotional stability. Early specialization in the majority of sports is unnecessary and comes with significant challenges to long term development. The lure of the minority that reach the top will always outweigh the reality of the majority whose story is not so glamorous. It is ultimately the responsibility of the coach, athlete and parents to acknowledge the advantages and disadvantages and choosing the appropriate path to success, as outlined by several authors for reasons listed above.
Recognize what research is suggesting
This paper does not give the coach all the answers. There is too much variation across sports, and to try and group the needs of all youth athletes together is unrealistic and would be naïve. What the paper does do is highlight what research in the topic is suggesting, in the hope that it educates and enlightens coaches and parents to the realities of youth development and the potential effects of sport specialization at varying ages. Research suggests that sport sampling is good for young athletes. With exception of a few sports there are very few reasons for specialization before puberty. Research suggests that early adolescence, around 14 to 16 years of age, is a prime time for sport specialization. Coaches in sports that are categorized as non-early specialization sports, should accept the benefits of early diversification, and potential negative effects of early specialization. There has been an argument for earlier specialization in sports such as gymnastics and diving where peak performance is required before maturation. There is even some argument for tennis, golf and swimming which Caruso describes as repetition events that can benefit from early deliberate practice (2013). In these sports, coaches need to be aware of the mental, emotional and physical challenges that athletes can face, and need to be sensitive in how they manage their athletes. Jayathi et al. (2019) says that although the majority of coaches acknowledge that playing multiple sports is beneficial for developing athletic ability and are concerned with over usage injuries, they are unaware of the specific sport-participation recommendations that are available from national organizations like the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP).
Make it fun
If specialization is required early or is sought by the athlete, then the coach has to ensure it remains fun. Sport has changed and kids don’t just play anymore. Parents look to fill kids’ schedules with after school activities and club sports, this is placing athletes with their coaches more frequently than ever before. Sometimes an athletes chronological age, emotional age and performance ability age do not align. An incredible athlete who is eight years of age still has psychological, emotional and social needs like every other third grade student. Sometimes as coaches it is easy to look at an elite level athlete purely from the perspective of performance, whilst forgetting all the other factors affecting their development, based on their age, and stage of life. An athlete at 14, still has to navigate themselves through the transition into high school that can add many social and emotional changes to their lives. These are all factors that need to be taken into consideration by coaches who are responsible for young athletes. Sport has to be fun, regardless of talent or performance level. Young athletes have to arrive at late adolescence ready to start their assent to elite performance without fatigue from the burden of the previous participation. In the majority of sports what is most important is that athletes arrive at 16 years of age, ready to start that ascent towards their goals. Make sure it is primarily fun for the players that insist on sports specialization, limit the chances of burnout, emotional burden or injury. Young athletes are children, let them grow up and enjoy themselves without being a pawn in a complex matrix of youth sport and elite performance (Malina, 2010).
Rest and Variation
Give young athletes the rest and time off they require to recover, reenergize, and refill their fuel tanks. As recommended by AOSSM, young athletes should take off one to three months per year from their primary sports (Jayathi et al., 2019). There are multidimensional benefits from taking this time off. The first is that the athletes are being given the appropriate time to rest and recover mentally and physically from the exertions of their primary sport and intense training. The second is that during this time those athletes will likely find an alternate sport to play temporarily, which will contribute to sport sampling and early diversification. Coaches need to think developmentally, rather than protecting only themselves, their sport, and financial gain. There is only one reason that youth sports promote year round opportunities to children under the age of 10, and that is the disposable income that can be earned from the youth sports industry. Malina (2010) claimed there is a higher proportion of youth athletes below the age of 6 than ever before, and this is a targeted market for many sports.
According to Hill and Simmons (1989), it’s due to over usage injuries, and the fact they believe specialization goes against the true spirit and purpose of scholastic education of developing the whole person, that many high school athletic directors are apprehensive to sports specialization even during high school years. When athletes start to specialize in mid to late adolescence AAP say it is imperative that they take off one to two days a week from training to help avoid over usage injury (Jayathi et al., 2019). In order to limit the chance of injury coaches who are working with high school age athletes can vary workouts that can target different muscles and parts of the body. They can incorporate weight training programs to strengthen the body, and ensure there is comprehensive, extensive, and purposeful warm-up time afforded to the athletes. Coaches can introduce programs such as Yoga and Pilates which can help with athletic development, challenging the athlete’s body in varying and productive ways that are different to typical rigors of regular trainings. There should also be recovery and regeneration sessions and trainings available for athletes, with modern technology consistently evolving and creating more tools and equipment that coaches and athletic trainers can use to keep the athletes healthy.
Conclusion
This paper is not designed to argue against sports specialization. We need elite level and professional level athletes. Reaching the absolute pinnacle of a sport can come with incredible financial benefits and social acceptance. The question is, what age is appropriate to start down the path of a single sport with year round intensive training? What are the advantages and disadvantages of specializing too early or too late? Throughout the paper various research suggests that each sport is different and cannot be treated in the same way. Some sports require early specialization as key motor skills or even peak performance are needed prior to puberty, and physical maturation. However, there are a growing number of sports that do not need such early specialization, and there is much research to suggest that early sports specialization and early age performance, is not a good indicator of future performance. There is much research to suggest that early diversification and sport sampling can offer tremendous physical and emotional benefits that can be built upon, when a sport of choice is eventually determined. Around the age of 14-16 is the generally accepted time to start specialization in a single sport, with, in the case of most sports, very little proven value in starting earlier. This paper also highlighted the physical and psychological challenges that can face single sport athletes, especially if they are not emotionally mature enough to handle the stressors. There are recommendations by key organization and associations about youth development, health and the amount of rest that is appropriate for youth and adolescents. Whilst coaches acknowledge much of the information, they either don’t have a complete understanding or choose to ignore it. Parents want what is best for their children and as free time has decreased, registration in organized activities and club sports has increased, and at an earlier age than ever before. The hope is that this paper will assist coaches and youth sports organizations to look beyond market share and financial gain and truly reflect on athlete development.
References
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